Since the dawn of cinema, visual effects have arguably been the most captivating and inspiring aspects of the motion picture. It could be argued that the mechanical means by which images are recorded is a visual effect in of itself; this technological feat alone would have audiences flocking to the theater in droves by the end of the 19th century. But of course, over the past century, visual effects have grown increasingly sophisticated in representing both natural phenomena and outlandish locations conjured by the imagination. The development of visual effects over the years comes from its innate balancing of technological progress with artistic innovation; it was this marriage, combined with my nostalgic curiosity of the past, that had me spellbound when seeing the T-1000 come to life upon my first viewing of Terminator 2: Judgement Day (1991). Granted, I was not among the lucky crowd to have seen it when it was out in theaters – no, I watched it first in 2010 by Netflix DVD on a whopping 32″ CRT display – but I knew I was experiencing a landmark in cinema, one that introduced 1991 audiences to digital imagery and elaborate special effects never seen to such an extent before. It was this historical turning point that set me off into an obsession over movie magic, during which I poured myself into the evolution of visual effects and how they were achieved. So let’s do a little recap of the history and impact of this mesmerizing facet of the moviemaking process, shall we?
By the late 1880s, all of the elements for filmmaking had been developed to make modern cinema possible. One of the most significant breakthroughs came when Kodak founder George Eastman developed the first sensitized strips of film, which allowed for quicker exposure times essential to the rapid-fire configuration of the motion picture format. Building upon these developments, Thomas Edison devised the Kinetograph, a savvy contraption which allowed for rapid consecutive images to be recorded onto strips of film. Finally, film pioneers Auguste and Louis Lumiére created the Cinématographe, which streamlined everything neatly into place: a camera, film printer, and projector all-in-one. The first public motion picture presentation occurred on December 28, 1895, with the showing of their infamous Train Arriving at a Station. Other completely innovative and creative storylines included Feeding a Baby, A Lesson in Vaulting, and Firemen Fighting a Fire, all of which amazed audiences worldwide who had literally never seen a movie before, let alone a YouTube cat video. Anything that featured the illusion of movement was enough to exceed audience’s demands in the earliest days of cinema.
Until the late 1890s and early 1900s, perhaps the biggest “special effect” was the sight of a moving image itself. It wasn’t long, however, before directors sought ways to push the boundaries of what could be shown on film. George Méliés, a French magician, is perhaps noted as being one of the best innovators in the history of filmmaking. Impressed and motivated by the new medium, the “father of special effects” discovered some of the earliest special effects, such as stop-action, which is simply leaving the camera in place while recording different exposures at different times. This effect made it possible for characters to appear in one place, and then suddenly appear in a different place. Before long, Méliés was using numerous special effects techniques, including stop-action, double exposure, slow motion, perspective tricks, split-screen effects, and dissolves in his films. Some of his groundbreaking films include Cinderella (1899), Indian Rubber Head (1902), and most impressively, his four hundredth film, A Trip to the Moon (1902). In a period where films lasted no longer than two minutes, this 21-minute long epic used every available visual effect known at the time, making use of painted backdrops, miniature models, makeup, and numerous optical effects such as split-screen and double exposure to tell the story of a group of Victorian explorers who travel to the moon. Another momentous film released around the same time was The Great Train Robbery (1903), directed by Edwin S. Porter. The film is noted as being the first film to feature cuts between different camera angles in a way that didn’t signify a simple change in location, but a way that dramatized a story in a linear fashion. Whereas Méliés is noted for using special effects solely to amaze audiences, Porter used them subtly to tell the story. (Essentially, modern editing.)
Over the next three decades, filmmaking started to consolidate into a major industry, leading to the rise of the major studios, such as Paramount Pictures and Universal Studios in 1912. As studios sought to maximize their profits, the need to produce increasingly glamorous and spectacular pictures became all the more important. Consequently, major advancements in special effects occurred with the development of complex photochemical optical effects. Inventions such as the optical printer made it possible to generate composites of multiple images and create intricate transitions such as the everyday wipe or fade. The optical printer would continue to be adjusted and perfected for another forty years. Films like The Thief of Baghdad (1924) and Metropolis (1926) made use of the most sophisticated effects (models and matte paintings, combined via optical printer) to resurrect both imaginary and historical locations to the big screen. Rear projection also came into prominence at this time. Characters and props would stand in front of a screen, where a separately filmed backdrop would be projected onto it from behind. This created the illusion that the cast was actually placed into the environment of the projected footage, and it proved so convincing that it would remain in use for at least another fifty years. Developments in animation increasingly grew in sophistication during this time, as seen with the release of The Lost World (1925) and King Kong (1933), both animated by Willis O’ Brien using stop motion. These features included several moments of startling stop-motion animated sequences to bring dinosaurs back to life, not to mention a monstrous giant-sized ape in the latter. Also, Snow White and the Seven Dwarves (1937) revolutionized animation, being the first full-length 2D animated film. In addition to this, color film made several early appearances, most notably by the end of the decade, with films such as The Wizard of Oz and Gone with the Wind (both 1939). Such developments whisked the moviegoing public away from their dreary Depression-era lives and into the lively spirit and imagination of Tinseltown.
Several important events also occurred during the 1940s regarding special effects, despite America’s primary focus on World War II (probably a bigger concern, too). Citizen Kane (1941) made use of ingenious “invisible” effects, meaning the special effects used were so convincing and subtle that there didn’t appear to be any effects work at all. For the next several decades, color presented many challenges to special effects technicians. Compositing techniques required huge modifications to accommodate color, and it resulted in the first bluescreen separation process pioneered in the film The Thief of Baghdad (1940). In perhaps its most iconic scene, an actor filmed against bluescreen was placed into the hand of a genie. An optical printer was used to extract the blue screen behind the actor, resulting in a transparent matte, which could then be placed on top of another strip of film. This made it appear as if the actor was walking in the genie’s hand.
Starting in the 1950s and lasting until the mid-70s, the rise of the television presented a challenge to the movie-making business. A startled Hollywood realized that major enhancements in the moviegoing experience were required in order to lure people back into the theater. This led to the creation of the widescreen format, improved color systems, better image quality, and, of course, grander special effects. Destination Moon (1950), War of the Worlds (1953), 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954), Forbidden Planet (1956), and Ben Hur (1959) were among the most visually impressive epics of the decade, using every special effects trick in the book. Despite these advancements, Hollywood still continued in trepidation throughout the 1960s, still trying to win audiences back from television. So films started to become more violent and action-packed with the loosening of obscenity laws and the increasing leniency of the MPAA, notable in films such as Psycho (1960) and Dr. No (1962), both of which consisted of major physical special effects on set in addition to heavy post-production work. The most effects-packed film of the decade, however, was featured in the groundbreaking spectacle 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). Clever uses of some of the most advanced special effects were prominent throughout the film to make spaceships fly and conjure the outlandish environments of outer space. In the end, though, the advancements made during this period would only be a mere glimpse of what was to come ahead…
The success of 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) inspired a new wave of filmmaking and cinematography during the 1970s. Directors sought to make their films bigger and better, and as a result the disaster genre cultivated during the early ‘70s with the release of The Towering Inferno (1974), The Poseidon Adventure (1962), and Earthquake (1974), each of which necessitated numerous special effects. Young filmmakers like Steven Spielberg and George Lucas, who had a passion for classic cinema, also rose to fame. Jaws (Spielberg, 1975) was a huge hit at the box office, the first film to gross over $100 million. However, it was George Lucas that was undoubtedly the biggest innovator in terms of special effects.
Star Wars was like no other film released before—even the film’s iconic opening title sequence was groundbreaking. Lucas knew at the start of the film’s production that existing special effects techniques would not be sufficient enough to replicate the grand space battles and locations he had in mind, so he and his group sought to create techniques of their own. One of their biggest achievements was the creation of a new, computer-controlled camera system, known as motion control. Motion control allowed for free-form camera movement that would forever stigmatize the locked-off camera that had beforehand been the norm in model photography; it also allowed for multi-axis camera moves to be repeated over and over again, allowing separately filmed elements to be layered into a final composite consisting of, at times, hundreds of different components. Star Wars used numerous, intricately designed models, matte paintings, and elaborate full-size sets to represent spaceships and otherworldly environments. It even pioneered the use of CGI in film, used for the crude, wireframe model of the Death Star during the Rebel briefing scene. With its state-of-the-art visual effects, adventurous plot, and compelling characters, Star Wars was a phenomenal box office success, making George Lucas the wealthiest filmmaker of all time. Its influence undoubtedly lasts strongly to this day, and inspired old effects artists and filmmakers to enter back into the filmmaking business with the new technology at their disposal. Due to the amazing advancements of effects prominent in Star Wars, Lucas and his team formed Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), the first operating special effects house. It still runs today as one of the most advanced and innovative special effects house, creating among the most iconic visual effects in the history of the movies.
Star Wars ushered in a new wave of fantasy and science-fiction blockbusters during the 1980s. Special effects-laden films like Blade Runner (1982), E.T. (1982), Ghostbusters (1984), and Back to the Future (1985) made the studios money again. Home video made its debut in the 1970s and gained monumental popularity by the early 1980s. The VCR made it possible to watch films at home, but this time, instead of bringing major detriment to Hollywood it only revived interest in film-going culture. Sequels also became more popular during the decade – the Star Wars saga continued with The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983), which were each increasingly more sophisticated than their predecessors. Steven Spielberg also released his Indiana Jones trilogy (1981, 1984, 1989), also making use of a plethora of handy-dandy special effects. Although most films in the 1980s consisted of visual effects achieved by means of practical effects and photochemical techniques, an entirely new form of visual effects was being pioneered with the use of computers.
Because motion picture images are of extremely high resolution, computers of the early 1980s were still not powerful enough to store and manipulate more than a few frames of film. Also, it was still relatively unknown how to convert analogue film images into digital files that computers could interpret. As the technology advanced, computer-generated imagery, although in its infancy during the 1980s, made several early noteworthy appearances in some films during the time. One of the first examples came in 1982 with the release of Tron, which overall contained a record sixteen minutes of CG graphics. Its disappointing performance at the box office briefly stunted the success of CG’s place in film, but a select few continued to see its potential. Among these were George Lucas, who in the late ’70s and 1980s steered ILM to focus on the possibilities of computer animation. In Young Sherlock Holmes (1985), CGI was utilized to create the first photorealistic character: a digital stained-glass knight that breaks free from a church window. In 1988, Willow was among the first films to use the revolutionary effect of digital morphing. Film images were scanned into a computer, digitally manipulated, and scanned back onto film using new digital scanning and recording technologies. Another groundbreaking film that required the use of pioneering digital effects was James Cameron’s The Abyss (1989), which used CG to create the watery, snake-like pseudopod creature in the film. These were huge steps in digital technology that would pave the way for future developments to come.
After ILM’s spectacular work on The Abyss (1989), James Cameron became excited about the potential of computer graphics. His next film, Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), required the use of CG for its main villain, the T-1000, which was essentially a shape-shifting android made of liquid metal. ILM took this opportunity to ultimately prove that digital technology could be used to create characters, props, and locations featured prominently in the movies. The work was more daunting than anyone expected it to be, but in the end ILM accomplished a landmark in visual effects production that still holds up remarkably well to this day (although it does have that slightly dated yet nostalgic retro-CGI charm). Over forty shots in the film were digitally enhanced in some way, and for the first time ever, all of its visual effects were composited within in the computer (rather than an optical printer). Audiences were amazed at these dazzling CG effects that highlighted the film, and soon after demanded more. Motivated by their innovative work on Terminator 2, ILM was not even close to phasing out; two years later Jurassic Park (1993) took digital effects to a whole new level of sophistication. For the first time, digital effects were used to create a photorealistic, living creature with skin, muscles, texture, and specific behaviors. Film input scanning and manipulation was also used heavily in order to convincingly combine the computer-generated elements into their real-world surroundings. Jurassic Park became the highest-grossing movie of the time and proved to many that the computer could be used to create anything that could be imagined.
After the full potential of the computer was realized after the release of Jurassic Park, effects techniques that were used for almost a century became immediately outdated. Unfortunately, it signaled the end of well-respected era. Optical printers, miniature models, and film editing beds were quickly replaced with powerful computers in just a few months. Although many people were impressed by the new technology, skilled model-makers and traditional effects technicians despised the computer, knowing eventually their skills would become antiquated. This change came much quicker than expected; as a result, many of these effects artists either switched to computer graphics or ended up creating their own effects houses devoted entirely to traditional effects work. As digital technology continued to grow in leaps and bounds, many of these companies were forced to shut down.
Ever since the groundbreaking release of T2 and Jurassic Park proved to the industry that CG was the way of the future, we’ve seen a tremendous growth of digital effects in our films over the past two decades. Toy Story became the first full-length computer animated feature film in 1995, spawning the popularity and eventual dominance of the CG-animated movie. There were a total of four mainstream 3D computer animated films released in the 1990s (Toy Story, A Bug’s Life, Antz, and Toy Story 2); in 2016 alone, there were at least fifteen. Peter Jackson’s cherished Lord of the Rings films (2001-2003) integrated groundbreaking digital effects with some of the oldest effects tricks in the book: elaborate scale models, prosthetics, and in-camera perspective illusions. A decade later for his Hobbit trilogy (2012-2014), almost all of these traditional effects were replaced with computer effects.
With the proliferation of such digital tinkering, special effects are, arguably, no longer “special” on their own. We’ve reached the point where it’s possible to recreate anything in a film, thanks to the list of pioneers and hard-working effects specialists who have produced some of the most memorable scenes in movie history. It’s no longer impressive to claim your film has 2,000+ visual effects shots–a once-reliable marketing ploy used by George Lucas with the release of Star Wars: The Phantom Menace in 1999 (“Titanic had 500 visual effects shots; MY film has over 2,000!”). Instead (and unlike The Phantom Menace), now more than ever, films must rely on a combination of compelling storytelling and relatable characters to be successful. Much like how the exploitation-movie craze of the 1970s died down as the “shock value” appeal became stale and overused, “bigger” special effects doesn’t always mean “better.” Granted, this was never the case, but it’s certain to say that special effects don’t have the thrilling effect they once did when they were “hip” and groundbreaking. So while I’m personally enamored with this incredible story of visual effects throughout the past 130 years or so, a lot of it is history; in trite filmic terms, each story must come to an end. But with so many techniques at our disposal, there really are no more limitations as long as you have a dose of creativity and enough energy to get things done (and a budget). As a young George Lucas said, “special effects are just a tool – a means of telling a story . . . a special effect without a story is a pretty boring thing.” Make sure you don’t forget that.